Prevalence of Risk Factors for Non-Communicable Diseases in the Adult Population of Urban Areas in Kabul City, Afghanistan
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Аннотация
Background: Non-Communicable diseases (NCDs) are a major global problem. This study aims to estimate the prevalence of common risk factors for NCDs among the adult population in urban areas of Kabul city, Afghanistan.
Methods and Materials: This study was conducted from December 2011 through March 2012 and involved a survey of 1169 respondents, aged 40 years and above. Multistage cluster sampling was used for participant selection, followed by random sampling of the participants. The World Health Organization STEPwise approachfor Surveillance (STEPS) was modified and used for this study.
Results: The overall prevalence of smoking was 5.1% (14.7% men versus 0.3% women) and using mouth snuff was 24.4% in men and 1.3% in women. The prevalence of obesity and hypertension were 19.1% and 45.2 % in men and 37.3% and 46.5% in women. Prevalence of diabetes was 16.1% in men and 12% in women. The overall prevalence of obesity, hypertension and diabetes mellitus was 31.2%, 46% and 13.3%, respectively. On average, subjects consumed 3.37 servings of fruit and 2.96 servings of leafy vegetables per week. Mean walking and sitting hours per week (as proxies for physical activity) were 19.4 and 20.5, respectively. A multivariate model demonstrated that age was a significant risk factor for obesity (OR=1.86), diabetes (OR=2/09) and hypertension (OR=4.1). Obesity was significantly associated with sex (OR=1.65).
Conclusion: These results highlight the need for interventions to reduce and prevent risk factors of non-communicable diseases in urban areas of Kabul City, Afghanistan.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- The Author retains copyright in the Work, where the term “Work” shall include all digital objects that may result in subsequent electronic publication or distribution.
- Upon acceptance of the Work, the author shall grant to the Publisher the right of first publication of the Work.
- The Author shall grant to the Publisher and its agents the nonexclusive perpetual right and license to publish, archive, and make accessible the Work in whole or in part in all forms of media now or hereafter known under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License or its equivalent, which, for the avoidance of doubt, allows others to copy, distribute, and transmit the Work under the following conditions:
- Attribution—other users must attribute the Work in the manner specified by the author as indicated on the journal Web site;
- The Author is able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the nonexclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the Work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), as long as there is provided in the document an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post online a prepublication manuscript (but not the Publisher’s final formatted PDF version of the Work) in institutional repositories or on their Websites prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work. Any such posting made before acceptance and publication of the Work shall be updated upon publication to include a reference to the Publisher-assigned DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and a link to the online abstract for the final published Work in the Journal.
- Upon Publisher’s request, the Author agrees to furnish promptly to Publisher, at the Author’s own expense, written evidence of the permissions, licenses, and consents for use of third-party material included within the Work, except as determined by Publisher to be covered by the principles of Fair Use.
- The Author represents and warrants that:
- the Work is the Author’s original work;
- the Author has not transferred, and will not transfer, exclusive rights in the Work to any third party;
- the Work is not pending review or under consideration by another publisher;
- the Work has not previously been published;
- the Work contains no misrepresentation or infringement of the Work or property of other authors or third parties; and
- the Work contains no libel, invasion of privacy, or other unlawful matter.
- The Author agrees to indemnify and hold Publisher harmless from Author’s breach of the representations and warranties contained in Paragraph 6 above, as well as any claim or proceeding relating to Publisher’s use and publication of any content contained in the Work, including third-party content.
Revised 7/16/2018. Revision Description: Removed outdated link.
Библиографические ссылки
United Nations. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly. 66/2: Political declaration of the high-level meeting of the general assembly on the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases. In: United Nations, ed. New York; 2012.
World Health Organization. Prevention and control of non-communicable diseases. In: Organization WH, ed. 65th World Health Assembly. Geneva; 2012.
Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, et al. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2012;380(9859):2095-2128.
World Health Organization. The global burden of diseases - 2004 update. In: WHO, ed. Geneva; 2008.
Murray CJ, Vos T, Lozano R, et al. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2012;380(9859):2197-2223.
World Health Organization. Global status report on non-communicable diseases 2010. Geneva: World Health Organization;2011.
Engelgau M, El-Saharty S, Kudesia P, Rajan V, Rosenhouse S, Okamoto K. Capitalizing on the demographic transition: Tackling noncommunicable diseases in South Asia. Washington, D.C.: World Bank; 2011.
World Health Organization. The world health report 2002: Reducing risk promoting healthy life. Geneva: World Health Organization;2002.
Salehuddin M, Choudhury KN, Islami N, Zillurahman M, Gosh S, Majib M. Burden of non-communicable diseases in South Asia. University Heart Journal. 2010.
Bhagyalaxmi A, Atul T, Shikha J. Prevalence of risk factors of non-communicable diseases in a district in Gujarat, India. J Health Popul Nutr. 2013;31(1):78-85.
Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension: Analysis of worldwide data. Lancet. 2005;365(9455):217-223.
Medscape Cardiology. Hypertension, but not "prehypertension," increases stroke risk: Global prevalence of hypertension may be close to 30%. 2004; http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/471536_8
World Health Organization. Non-communicable diseases: Hypertension. 2011; http://www.emro.who.int/ncd/hypertension.htm.
Haghdoost AK, Behnam Sadeghirad B, Rezazadehkermani M. Epidemiology and heterogeneity of hypertension in Iran: A systematic review. Arch Iranian Med. 2008;11(4):444-452.
Safdar S, Omair A, Faisal U, Hasan H. Prevalence of hypertension in a low income settlement of Karachi, Pakistan. J Pak Med Assoc. 2004;54(10):506-509.
International Diabetes Federation. International Diabetes Federation estimation. 2011.
Friedrich MJ. Epidemic of obesity expands its spread to developing countries. JAMA. 2002;287:1382-1386.
Reddy KS, Yusuf S. Emerging epidemic of cardiovascular disease in developing countries. Circulation. 1998;97:596-601.
Shera AS, Basti A, Fawwad A, et al. Pakistan National Diabetes Survey: Prevalence of glucose intolerance and associated factors in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Prim Care Diabetes. 2010;4(2):79-83.
Esteghamati A, Meysamie A, Khalilzadeh O, et al. Third national Surveillance of Risk Factors of Non-Communicable Diseases (SuRFNCD-2007) in Iran: Methods and results on prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, central obesity, and dyslipidemia. BMC Public Health. 2009;9:167.
Afghan Public Health Institute Ministry of Public Health (APHI/MoPH) [Afghanistan], Central Statistics Organization (CSO) [Afghanistan], ICF Macro IIoHMRII, [Egypt] WHOROftEMWE. Afghanistan Mortality Survey 2010. Maryland, USA: Calverton; 2011.
World Health Organization. Prevalence of diabetes in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region. In: Programme D, ed.
Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;87(1):4-14.
Mohmand KA, Sharifi K, Bahram AA. Smoking prevalence survey in Kabul City. 2010 (in press).
Sediqi A. A preliminary assessment of air quality in Kabul. http://www.afghan-web.com/environment/kabul_air_quality.pdf.
Bonita R, deCourten M, Dwyer T, K. J, Winkelmann R. Surveillance of risk factors for non-communicable disease: the WHO STEPwise approach. Geneva: World Health Organization;2002.
World Health Organization. STEPS country reports.
World Health Organization. The STEPS Manual 2005. Geneva2005.
Central Statistics Organization, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan , Population Statistics, Population Estimation 2012-2013
World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic; report of a WHO consultation. Geneva: World Health Organization;2000.
International Diabetes Federation. The IDF consensus worldwide definitions of the metabolic symdrome. 2006; http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/IDF_Meta_def_final.pdf.
Whitworth JA, World Health Organization, International Society of Hypertension Writing Group. 2003 World Health Organization (WHO)/International Society of Hypertension (ISH) statement on management of hypertension. J Hypertens. 2003;21(11):1983-1992.
Federal Occupational Health. Hypertension and pre-hypertension. http://www.foh.dhhs.gov/nycu/hypertension.asp.
Rutledge T, Braden AL, Woods G, Herbst KL, Groesz LM, Savu M. Five-year changes in psychiatric treatment status and weight-related comorbidities following bariatric surgery in a veteran population. Obesity surgery. Nov 2012;22(11):1734-1741.
World Health Organization. Diabetes: Fact sheet #312. WHO media center. 2009.
Epi Info [computer program]. Version 3.5.12008.
IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows [computer program]. Version 20.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corporation; 2011.
Sandefur J. Here's the best thing the US has done in Afghanistan. The Atlantic. 2013; http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/10/heres-the-best-thing-the-us-has-done-in-afghanistan/280484/.
Musaiger AO. Overweight and obesity in eastern mediterranean region: Prevalence and possible causes. J Obes. 2011;2011:1-17.
Yalcin BM, Sahin EM, Yalcin E. Prevalence and epidemiological risk factors of obesity in Turkey. MEJFM. 2004;6(6).
Musaiger AO, Al-Mannai MA. Weight, height, body mass index and prevalence of obesity among the adult population in Bahrain. Ann Hum Biol. 2001;28(3):346-350.
Al-Nuaim AA, Bamgboye EA, al-Rubeaan KA, al-Mazrou Y. Overweight and obesity in Saudi Arabian adult population, role of socio-demographic variables. J Community Health. 1997;22(3):211-223.
Sibai AM, Hwalla N, Adra N, Rahal B. Prevalence of and covariates of obesity in Labanon: Finding from the first epidemiological study. Obes Res. 2003;11:1353-1361.
Azadbakht L, Mirmiran P, Shiva N, Azizi F. General obesity and central adiposity in a representative sample of Tehranian adults: Prevalence and determinants. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2005;75(4):297-304.
Gutiérrez-Fisac JL, Guallar-Castillón P, Díez-Gañán L, López García E, Banegas Banegas JR, Rodríguez Artalejo F. Work-related physical activity is not associated with body mass index and obesity. Obes Res. 2002;10(4):270-276.
Lahti-Koski M, Pietinen P, Heliovaara M, Vartiainen E. Association of body mass index and obesity with physical activity, food choices, alcohol intake and smoking in the 1982-1997. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75:809-817.
Zafar J, Bhatti F, Akhtar N, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for diabetes mellitus in a selected urban population of a city in Punjab. J Pak Med Assoc. 2011;61(1):40-47.
Ramachandran A. Urban India: A breeding ground for Diabetes. Diabetes Voice. 2002;47(1):18-20.
Ning F, Pang ZC, Dong YH, et al. Risk factors associated with the dramatic increase in the prevalence of diabetes in the adult Chinese population in Qingdao, China. Diabet Med. 2009;26(9):855-863.
Sahraki MR, Mirshekari H, Sahraki AR, Mohammadi M, Sahraki E, Khazaei Feizabad A. Hypertension among 30+ year-old people in Zahedan (Southeast of Iran). Shiraz E-Medical Journal. 2011;12(3).
Khan RJ, Stewart CP, Christian P, et al. A cross-sectional study of the prevalence and risk factors for hypertension in rural Nepali women. BMC Public Health. 2013.
Pires JE, Sebastião YV, Langa AJ, Nery SV. Hypertension in Northern Angola: Prevalence, associated factors, awareness, treatment and control. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):90.
Sit JW, Sijian L, Wong EM, et al. Prevalence and risk factors associated with prehypertension: Identification of foci for primary prevention of hypertension. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2010;25(6):461-469.
Meshram II, Arlappa N, Balkrishna N, Rao KM, Laxmaiah A, Brahmam GN. Prevalence of hypertension, its correlates and awareness among adult tribal population of Kerala state, India. J Postgrad Med. 2012;58(4):255-261.
Ordinioha B. The prevalence of hypertension and its modifiable risk factors among lecturers of a medical school in Port Harcourt, south-south Nigeria: Implications for control effort. Niger J Clin Pract. 2013;16(1):1-4.
Weiss HA, Quigley MA, Hayes RJ. Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS (London, England). Oct 20 2000;14(15):2361-2370.